Роль глобального горообразования и денудации в кайнозойском похолодании климата

Рассматривается комплекс взаимосвязанных процессов: формирование горного рельефа, денудация, изменения атмосферного CO₂ и постепенное похолодание климата в кайнозое. Темпы денудации в геологическом масштабе могут весьма существенно меняться, как в связи со сейсмотектонической деятельностью, так и климатическими изменениями. В свою очередь климатические изменения могут быть обусловлены последствиями сейсмотектонической деятельности, которые способствуют трансформации рельефа территории и темпов денудации. Глобальный климатический режим начал кардинальным образом меняться около 50 млн л. н. Механизм этого самого значительного изменения климата с момента начала кайнозойской эры 66 млн л. н. и до сегодняшнего дня (т.н. кайнозойское похолодание, “Cenozoic cooling”) до сих пор остается окончательно невыясненным. Продолжают накапливаться свидетельства в пользу целого ряда положений гипотезы Раймо-Руддимана, сформулированной в 1992 г., о причине кайнозойского похолодания, заключающейся в том, что существенное в глобальном масштабе формирование горного рельефа привело к интенсификации процессов денудации и связывания атмосферного CO₂ в виде карбоната. Это, в свою очередь, влияет на глобальный климат. В последнее время существенное развитие получили методы и подходы, позволяющие на количественной основе судить об интенсивности отдельных экзогенных процессов и темпов денудации в целом. Современные количественные данные, полученные благодаря измерениям стока наносов рек и оценкам бассейновой денудации по 10Be, дают представление о масштабах разрушения горных районов. Контрастность рельефа является ключевым параметром, определяющим темпы природной (без вмешательства человека) денудации, что подчеркивается значительным вкладом горных районов, прежде всего, альпийской складчатости, в глобальную денудацию. В статье кратко характеризуется тренд похолодания в кайнозое и анализируются ключевые элементы гипотезы, сформулированной Раймо и Руддиманом, а также результаты новейших исследований, подтверждающие влияние рельефа и темпов денудации на изменения климата.

1. Keller E., Adamaitis C., Alessio P., Anderson S., Goto E., Gray S., Gurrola L., and Morell K. Applications in geomorphology // Geomorphology. 2020. Vol. 366. Article number: 106729.

2. Lasaga A.C., Soler J.M., Ganor J., Burch T.E., and Nagy K.L. Chemical weathering rate laws and global geochemical cycles // Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 1994. Vol. 58. P. 2361–2386.

3. Sloan L.C., Bluth G.J., and Filippelli G.M. A comparison of spatially resolved and global mean reconstructions of continental denudation under ice-free and present conditions // Paleoceanography. 1997. Vol. 12. P. 147–160.

4. Добродеев О.П., Суетова И.А. Живое вещество Земли. Масса, продукция, география, геохимическое значение и возможное влияние на климат и оледенение Земли // Пробл. общей физической географии и палеогеографии. М.: Изд-во Моск. ун-та, 1976. С. 26-59.

5. Rodhe H., Charlson R., and Crawford E. Svante Arrhenius and the greenhouse effect // Ambio. 1997. Vol. 26. P. 2–5.

6. Houghton J. Global warming // Reports on Progress in Physics. 2005. Vol. 68. P. 1343–1403.

7. Petersen A.M., Vincent E.M., and Westerling A.L. Discrepancy in scientific authority and media visibility of climate change scientists and contrarians // Nature Communications. 2019. Vol. 10. Article number: 3502.

8. IPCC: Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, 2013. 1535 p.

9. Turowski J.M. and Cook K.L. Field techniques for measuring bedrock erosion and denudation // Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 2017. Vol. 42. P. 109–127.

10. Granger D.E. and Schaller M. Cosmogenic nuclides and erosion at the watershed scale // Elements. 2014. Vol.10. P. 369–373.

11. Эрозионно-русловые системы / Под ред. Р.С. Чалова, А.Ю. Сидорчука, В.Н. Голосова. М.: ИНФРА, 2017. 702 с.

12. Milliman J.D. and Farnsworth K.L. River discharge to the coastal ocean: A global synthesis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2013. 394 p.

13. Land use and climate change impacts on erosion and sediment transport. S. Chalov, V. Golosov, A. Collins, and M. Stone (Eds.). Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences. 2019. Vol. 381. 126 p.

14. Portenga E.W. and Bierman P.R. Understanding Earth’s eroding surface with 10Be // GSA Today. 2011. Vol. 21. P. 4–10.

15. Mishra A.K., Placzek C., and Jones R. Coupled influence of precipitation and vegetation on millennial-scale erosion rates derived from 10Be // PLoS ONE. 2019. Vol. 14. Article number: e0211325, Supporting information: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211325

16. Anagnostou E., John E.H., Edgar K.M., Foster G.L., Ridgwell A., Inglis G.N., Pancost R.D., Lunt D.J., and Pearson P.N. Changing atmospheric CO2 concentration was the primary driver of early Cenozoic climate // Nature. 2016. Vol. 533. P. 380–384.

17. Caves J.K., Jost A.B., Lau K.V., and Maher K. Cenozoic carbon cycle imbalances and a variable weathering feedback // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2016. Vol. 450. P. 152–163.

18. Miller K.G., Browning J.V., Schmelz W.J., Kopp R.E., Mountain G.S., and Wright J.D. Cenozoic sea-level and cryospheric evolution from deep-sea geochemical and continental margin records // Science Advances. 2020. Vol. 6. Article number: eaaz1346.

19. Zachos J.C., Dickens G.R., and Zeebe R.E. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics // Nature. 2008. Vol. 451. P. 279– 283.

20. Изменение климата и ландшафтов за последние 65миллионов лет (кайнозой: от палеоцена до голоцена) / Под ред. А.А. Величко. М.: ГЕОС, 1999. 260 с.

21. Barker P.F., Diekmann B., and Escutia C. Onset of Cenozoic Antarctic glaciation // Deep Sea Research PartII: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 2007. Vol.54. P. 2293–2307.

22. Raymo M.E. and Ruddiman W.F. Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate // Nature. 1992. Vol. 359. P.117–122.

23. Tectonic uplift and climate change. W.F. Ruddiman (Ed.). Springer, New York. 1997. 535 p.

24. Ярмолюк В.В., Кузьмин М.И. Корреляция эндогенных событий и вариаций климата в позднем кайнозое Центральной Азии // Стратиграфия. Геологическая корреляция. 2006. Т. 14. С. 3–25.

25. Кузьмин М.И., Ярмолюк В.В. Горообразующие процессы и вариации климата в истории Земли // Геология и геофизика. 2006. Т. 47. С. 7–25.

26. Chamberlin T.C. An attempt to frame a working hypothesis of the cause of glacial periods on an atmospheric basis // The Journal of Geology. 1899. Vol. 7. P.545–584.

27. Зубаков В.А. Глобальные климатические события неогена. Л.: Гидрометеоиздат, 1990. 224 с.

28. Penman D.E., Rugenstein J.K.C., Ibarra D.E., and Winnick M.J. Silicate weathering as a feedback and forcing in Earth’s climate and carbon cycle // EarthScience Reviews. 2020. Article number: 103298.

29. White A.F. and Brantley S.L. The effect of time on the weathering of silicate minerals: why do weathering rates differ in the laboratory and field? // Chemical Geology. 2003. Vol. 202. P. 479–506.

30. Hilley G.E., Chamberlain C.P., Moon S., Porder S., and Willett S.D. Competition between erosion and reaction kinetics in controlling silicate-weathering rates // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2010. Vol. 293. P. 191– 199.

31. Winnick M.J. and Maher K. Relationships between CO2, thermodynamic limits on silicate weathering, and the strength of the silicate weathering feedback // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2018. Vol. 485. P. 111– 120.

32. Maher K. and Navarre-Sitchler A. Reactive transport processes that drive chemical weathering: From making space for water to dismantling continents // Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 2019. Vol. 85. P. 349– 380.

33. Lebedeva M.I. and Brantley S.L. Relating the depth of the water table to the depth of weathering // Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 2020. Vol. 45. P. 2167– 2178.

34. Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., and Billups K. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present // Science. 2001. Vol. 292. P.686–693.

35. Scher H.D. and Martin E.E. Timing and climatic consequences of the opening of Drake Passage // Science. 2006. Vol. 312. P. 428–430.

36. O’Dea A., Lessios H.A., Coates A.G., Eytan R.I., Restrepo-Moreno S.A., Cione A.L., Collins L.S., De Queiroz A., Farris D.W., Norris R.D., Stallard R.F., Woodburne M.O., Aguilera O., Aubry M.-P., Berggren W.A., Budd A.F., Cozzuol M.A., Coppard S.E., Duque-Caro H., Finnegan S., Gasparini G.M., Grossman E.L., Johnson K.G., Keigwin L.D., Knowlton N., Leigh E.G., Leonard-Pingel J.S., Marko P.B., Pyenson N.D., RachelloDolmen P.G., Soibelzon E., Soibelzon L., Todd J.A., Vermeij G.J., and Jackson J.B.C. Formation of the Isthmus of Panama // Science Advances. 2016. Vol. 2. Article number: e1600883.

37. Kennett J.P. Cenozoic evolution of Antarctic glaciation, the circum-Antarctic Ocean, and their impact on global paleoceanography // Journal of Geophysical Research. 1977. Vol. 82. P. 3843–3860.

38. Haug G.H. and Tiedemann R. Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation // Nature. 1998. Vol. 393. P. 673–676.

39. Brooks C.E.P. Climate through the Ages: A Study of the Climatic Factors and their Variations. Ernest Benn, London, 1926. 439 p.

40. Urey H.C. The thermodynamic properties of isotopic substances // Journal of the Chemical Society. 1947. P.562–581.

41. Emiliani C. Temperature and age analysis of deep-sea cores // Science. 1957. Vol. 125. P. 383–387.

42. Bradley R.S. Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary. Academic Press, San Diego, 2014. 696 p.

43. Paleoclimatology. G. Ramstein, A. Landais, N. Bouttes, P. Sepulchre, A. Govin (Eds.). Springer, New York, 2021. 478 p.

44. Barrett P.J. A history of Antarctic Cenozoic glaciation – view from the continental margin. F. Florindo and M.Siegert (Eds.) // Antarctic Climate Evolution. Developments in Earth and Environmental Science. 2008. Vol. 8. P. 33–83.

45. Zachos J.C., Lohmann K.C., Walker J.C., and Wise S.W. Abrupt climate change and transient climates during the Paleogene: A marine perspective // The Journal of Geology. 1993. Vol. 101. P. 191–213.

46. Wilson G.S., Roberts A.P., Verosub K.L., Florindo F., and Sagnotti L. Magnetobiostratigraphic chronology of the Eocene-Oligocene transition in the CIROS-1 core, Victoria Land margin, Antarctica: Implications for Antarctic glacial history // Geological Society of America Bulletin. 1998. Vol. 110. P. 35–47.

47. Larsen H.C., Saunders A.D., Clift P.D., Beget J., Wei W., and Spezzaferri S. Seven million years of glaciation in Greenland // Science. 1994. Vol. 264. P. 952–955.

48. Shackleton N.J., Backman J., Zimmerman H., Kent D.V., Hall M.A., Roberts D.G., Schnitker D., Baldauf J.G., Desprairies A., Homrighausen R., Huddlestun P., Keene J.B., Kaltenback A.J., Krumsiek K.A.O., Morton A.C., Murray J.W., and Westberg-Smith J. Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region // Nature. 1984. Vol. 307. P. 620–623.

49. Hays J.D., Imbrie J., and Shackleton N.J. Variations in the Earth’s orbit: Pacemaker of the ice ages // Science. 1976. Vol. 194. P. 1121–1132.

50. Mix A.C., Bard E., and Schneider R. Environmental processes of the ice age: land, oceans, glaciers (EPILOG) // Quaternary Science Reviews. 2001. Vol. 20. P. 627–657.

51. Douglas I. Man, vegetation, and the sediment yield of rivers // Nature. 1967. Vol. 215. P. 925–928.

52. Jansen I.M.L. and Painter R.B. Predicting sediment yield from climate and topography // Journal of Hydrology. 1974. Vol. 21. P. 371–380.

53. Milliman J.D. and Meade R.H. World-wide delivery of river sediment to the oceans // Journal of Geology. 1983. Vol. 91. P. 1–21.

54. Milliman J.D. and Syvitski J.P. Geomorphic/tectonic control of sediment discharge to the ocean: the importance of small mountainous rivers // The Journal of Geology. 1992. Vol. 100. P. 525–544.

55. Gilbert G.K. Geology of the Henry Mountains. US Geological and Geographical Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Washington, DC, 1877. 160 p.

56. Meybeck M., Green P., and Vörösmarty C. A new typology for mountains and other relief classes // Mountain Research and Development. 2001. Vol. 21. P. 34–45.

57. Larsen I.J., Montgomery D.R., and Greenberg H.M. The contribution of mountains to global denudation // Geology. 2014. Vol. 42. P. 527–530.

58. Tsyplenkov A., Golosov V., and Vanmaercke M. Contemporary suspended sediment yield of Caucasus mountains // Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences. 2019. Vol. 381. P. 87–93.

59. Tsyplenkov A., Vanmaercke M., Golosov V., and Chalov S. Suspended sediment budget and intra-event sediment dynamics of a small glaciated mountainous catchment in the Northern Caucasus // Journal of Soils and Sediments. 2020. Vol. 20. P. 3266–3281.

60. Mariotti A., Blard P.H., Charreau J., Petit C., Molliex S., and ASTER Team. Denudation systematics inferred from in situ cosmogenic 10Be concentrations in fine (50–100 μm) and medium (100–250 μm) sediments of the Var River basin, southern French Alps // Earth Surface Dynamics. 2019. Vol. 7. P. 1059–1074.

61. Ojha L., Ferrier K.L., and Ojha T. Millennial-scale denudation rates in the Himalaya of Far Western Nepal // Earth Surface Dynamics. 2019. Vol. 7. P. 969–987.

62. Moore A.K. and Granger D.E. Watershed-averaged denudation rates from cosmogenic 36Cl in detrital magnetite // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2019. Vol.527. Article number: 115761.

63. Starke J., Ehlers T.A., and Schaller M. Latitudinal effect of vegetation on erosion rates identified along western South America // Science. 2020. Vol. 367. P. 1358– 1361.

64. Wittmann H., Oelze M., Gaillardet J., Garzanti E., and von Blanckenburg F. A global rate of denudation from cosmogenic nuclides in the Earth’s largest rivers // Earth-Science Reviews. 2020. Vol. 204. Article number: 103147.

65. Mao L., Comiti F., Carrillo R., and Penna D. Sediment transport in proglacial rivers. T. Heckmann and D. Morche (Eds.). Geomorphology of Proglacial Systems // Geography of the Physical Environment. Springer, Cham. 2019. P. 199–217.

66. Страхов Н.М. Основы теории литогенеза. В 3 т. М.: Изд-во АН СССР, 1960. Т. 1. Типы литогенеза и их размещение на поверхности Земли. 212 с.; Т. 2. Закономерности состава и размещения гумидных отложений. 574 с.

67. Gabet E.J. and Mudd S.M. A theoretical model coupling chemical weathering rates with denudation rates // Geology. 2009. Vol. 37. P. 151–154.

68. Hilton R.G. and West A.J. Mountains, erosion and the carbon cycle // Nature Reviews Earth and Environment. 2020. Vol. 1. P. 284–299.

69. Colbourn G., Ridgwell A., and Lenton T. The time scale of the silicate weathering negative feedback on atmospheric CO2 // Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 2015. Vol. 29. P. 583–596.

70. Goudie A.S. and Viles H.A. Weathering and the global carbon cycle: Geomorphological perspectives // EarthScience Reviews. 2012. Vol. 113. P. 59–71.

71. Galy V., Peucker-Ehrenbrink B., and Eglinton T. Global carbon export from the terrestrial biosphere controlled by erosion // Nature. 2015. Vol. 521. P. 204–207.

72. Ruddiman W.F., Prell W.L., and Raymo M.E. Late Cenozoic uplift in southern Asia and the American West: Rationale for general circulation modeling experiments // Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 1989. Vol. 94. P. 18379–18391.

73. Ollier C.D. Mountain building and climate: Mechanisms and timing // Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria. 2004. Vol. 27. P. 139–149.

74. Rae J.W., Zhang Y.G., Liu X., Foster G.L., Stoll H.M., and Whiteford R.D. Atmospheric CO2 over the Past 66 Million Years from Marine Archives // Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 2021. Vol. 49. P. 609– 641.

75. Ding L., Xu Q., Yue Y., Wang H., Cai F., and Li S. The Andean-type Gangdese Mountains: Paleoelevation record from the Paleocene–Eocene Linzhou Basin // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2014. Vol. 392. P.250–264.

76. Kapp P. and DeCelles P.G. Mesozoic–Cenozoic geological evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen and working tectonic hypotheses // American Journal of Science. 2019. Vol. 319. P. 159–254.

77. Xiong Z., Ding L., Spicer R.A., Farnsworth A., Wang X., Valdes P.J., Su T., Zhang Q., Zhang L., Cai F., Wang H., Lia Z., Song P., Guo X., and Yue Y. The early Eocene rise of the Gonjo Basin, SE Tibet: From low desert to high forest // Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2020. Vol. 543. Article number: 116312.

78. van Hinsbergen D.J., Lippert P.C., Li S., Huang W., Advokaat E. L., and Spakman W. Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives // Tectonophysics. 2019. Vol. 760. P. 69– 94.

79. Kump L.R., Brantley S.L., and Arthur M.A. Chemical, weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate // Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 2000. Vol. 28. P. 611–667.

80. Maher K. and Chamberlain C. Hydrologic regulation of chemical weathering and the geologic carbon cycle // Science. 2014. Vol. 343. 1502–1504.

81. Ibarra D.E., Rugenstein J.K.C., Bachan A., Baresch A., Lau K.V., Thomas D.L., Lee J.-E., Boyce C.K., and Chamberlain C.P. Modeling the consequences of land plant evolution on silicate weathering // American Journal of Science. 2019. Vol. 319. P. 1–43.

82. Galy V., France-Lanord C., Beyssac O., Faure P., Kudrass H., and Palhol F. Efficient organic carbon burial in the Bengal fan sustained by the Himalayan erosional system // Nature. 2007. Vol. 450. P. 407–410.

83. Hay W.W., Soeding E., DeConto R.M., and Wold C.N. The Late Cenozoic uplift – climate change paradox // International Journal of Earth Sciences. 2002. Vol. 91. P. 746–774.

84. Rind D., Russell G., and Ruddiman W.F. The effects of uplift on ocean-atmosphere circulation. W.F. Ruddiman (Ed.). Tectonic uplift and climate change. Springer, New York, 1997, 535 p.

85. Feng R., Poulsen C.J., Werner M., Chamberlain C.P., Mix H.T., and Mulch A. Early Cenozoic evolution of topography, climate, and stable isotopes in precipitation in the North American Cordillera // American Journal of Science. 2013. Vol. 313. P. 613–648.

86. Foster G.L., Royer D.L., and Lunt D.J. Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years // Nature Communications. 2017. Vol. 8. Article number: 14845.

87. Panin A. Land-ocean sediment transfer in palaeotimes, and implications for present-day natural fluvial fluxes. V. Golosov, V. Belyaev, and D.E. Walling (Eds.). Sediment transfer through the fluvial system // IAHS Publ. 2004. Vol. 288. P. 115–124.

88. Hinderer M., Kastowski M., Kamelger A., Bartolini C., and Schlunegger F. River loads and modern denudation of the Alps – a review // Earth-Science Reviews. 2013. Vol. 118. P. 11–44.