Three main types of the sea mounts are identified on the basis of geological, geophysical and geomorphic features, i. e. volcanic, volcano-tectonic and tectonic sea mounts. Main features of each type are described and distribution according to main oceanic structures is shown.

Most widespread type are volcanic sea mounts, especially in the Pacific. Several kinds of distribution (in connection with tectonic structures) may be distinguished, i.e. linear, areal, cluster-like, annular and sporadic. The volcano-tectonic mounts are noted to be typical for mid-oceanic ridges and transform faults. Tectonic mounts are mostly spread over peripheral parts of oceans and seem to be result of vertical and horizontal movements. Sea mounts types and their distributions give evidence for tectonic unhomogenity of the: Earth's oceanic areas.

Two types of the continental margin are distinguished: superimposed on areas of neotectonic uplift and downwarping. The types differ in character of contact between sedimentary components of the tectonic frame of the deep sea basin and young sediments infilling the basin; they differ also in some morphological features (value of horizontal projection of continental slope, submarine canyons profile, distribution of the canyons heads etc.) and distribution of recent sediments. Morphology of shelf and continental slope is briefly described for both types of the continental margin.

The karst with naked surface of limestones is proved to result from degradation of the karst covered with vegetation. Within the limits of the latter besides sod cover loose deposits often can be found filling individual narrow wedge-like depressions. Covered karst is a type of karst topography which develops under loose mantle, the latter compensate for chemical erosion and determine formation of «karstogenous» aggradations surfaces. Buried karst is covered with thick series of younger deposits. «Armoured» karst develops under solid volcanic or unsalable sedimentary rocks within zone of erosional cuts influence. There are also some transitional types between those discussed above, as well as fluvial-karstic forms.

Sub-aerial relief-forming processes are few in number and weak in polar cold deserts without rains and melt water being hardly available, Vertical zonality of the processes is almost completely absent. Final stage of mountain planation is «deserption pediment» inclined by 30⁰. General erosion rate (mostly due to deflation) is less than 0,1 mm per year, which is lowest for mountain regions. As far as the exogenous processes are concerned, the oases of Transantarctic Mountains are most relevant analogs of the Moon and Mars.

The location of the Late Mesozoic crust of weathering and hypergene minerals associated therewith on the Ukrainian shield was controlled by geotectonic and geomorphic factors, The hypsometric position and topography had an indirect and direct influence on the formation of the weathering crust, its profile, on the intensity of hypergene processes, on the degree of erosion of the crust and preservation of metalbearing deposits etc. The shield was subdivided into four morphostructural regions: Volyno-Podolsk, Central, Dnieper and Azov ones, which correspond to the main hypsometric levels. They are essentially different in the character of the basement topography, in the occurrence of the ancient crust, in the mineral complexes. The consideration of geomorphic factors is of the first rate importance for the exploration work on the minerals of the ancient crust of weathering.

Total amplitudes of neotectonic movements are usually calculated without taking into consideration the Cenozoic lowering of the World Ocean level, which results in grave errors in views on tectonics and geomorphology, as the value of the lowering is about few hundred meters (no matter what lower limit of the Cenozoic stage is assumed). The author introduced a correction which he used for neotectonic mapping of the Siberian Platform, Using the correction, the vast area of neotectonic down warping (about half of the whole platform area) has been contoured, which is both of applied and certain theoretical importance. Application of the proposed methods to other plain areas may give similar results.

Hydrogeological conditions at the West Syria area are controlled by morphostructures. The morphostructural evolution was inherited from the end of Miocene, since most part of the area came into continental stage and the mountain frame was formed. During Pleistocene the mountains were eroded which resulted in the planation of the relief. Differentiated tectonic movements took place again along the inherited faults, as well as volcanism. Most contrasting topography was formed at the Arabian rift zone in the end of Pleistocene, Comparison of the present hypsometric position of the Upper Pliocene planation surface and remnants of Miocene topography in the mountains reveals the contrasting tectonic movements amplitude being about 11500-2000 meters within Antilebanon-Palmiric avlakogene, up to 3000 meters within the rift zone and about 200-400 meters at the Aleppo uplift.

Baer's mounds or ridges occur at the south of Caspian Lowland, forming areas of various size and configuration, the mounds' long axes are orientated east-west, the height is 2 to 45 meters, the width is 100 to 600 meters, the length is 0,5 to 8 km. They are known for more than 200 years, but their structure and genesis are still arguable points. A general geological section of a mound showing its rather complicate structure has been drawn on the basis of literature data. The mounds structure gives evidence on the beginning of their formation at inter-Khvalynian regression by eolian re-working thin cover of Lower Khvalynian sands (Q₃¹) and of underlying chocolate-brown clays (also dated from Lower Khvalyn). During Late Khvalynian transgression the initial mounds were partly eroded, partly covered with Late Khvalynian sands. During the Post-Khvalynian regression the eolian processes resumed their activity at the North Caspian region and «completed» the Baer's mounds by deposition of the Upper Khvalynian deluvial-marine sediments at their non-eroded parts.

Within some depressions in the Eastern Pamir and Gorny Altai Mountains at 1200-3800 meters a.s.l. for the first time ground moraines have been found (mostly of Middle Pleistocene) characterized with peculiar small-ridge topography. They are similar to ribbed and cellular moraines which belong (according to Yu. A. Lavrushin's classification) to scaly ground moraines faces formed under conditions of ice shift along internal shear planes, Study of the moraines at the ancient mountain glaciation areas is important for glacial deposits identification and reconstruction of paleo-glaciations.

Geomorphic map importance during geocryological mapping depends on significance of relief and solid rocks in the heat exchange process at the Earth's surface. Therefore the special geomorphic maps must show hypsometry, morphology, relief's genesis and relief-forming processes and phenomena. At mountains the most important are morphostructures (blocks and arch-blocks), at plains-accumulative surf aces, as well as genesis, age and structure of loose Cenozoic deposits. Geocryological characteristics of the identified types of topographic elements are given on the basis of cryological conditions formation studies within each geomorphic element during the geocryological survey.

Many new facts have been lately received on the structure and evolution of shelf topography at the Bulgarian part of the Black Sea during Pleistocene and Holocene. Three main stages in the shell evolution and sedimentation have been distinguished: Early Pleistocene (Chauda), Late Pleistocene (New Euxine) and Holocene. Built-up ridges at the peripheral part of the shelf have been found for the first time, which fix the position of ancient (Late Chauda) coast line at the depth about 120 meters. The old topographic elements were inherited and manifested in the Holocene relief evolution and present-day sea floor topography.

Ring morphostructures are identified on the basis of structural-geomorphological analysis, drainage pattern, configuration of mountain slopes, crests and masses being taken into consideration and compared with geological data. Some of the ring structures types appeared due to granitic intrusive masses.

Many deep regional faults at the East of the Caspian Basin (suggested by geophysical evidences) can be traced in the relief by some structural morphological features. It has been used for identification of new faults. The analysis of their neotectonic activity reveals that 80% of meridional faults and only 40% of latitudinal faults are active; the suggested explanation is primary significance of trans-meridional wave movements. The information on the neotectonic activity of the deep faults is important for oil and gas searches.

On the basis of aerial photographs interpretation a certain «grid pattern» was established in structure and position of landscape elements of North-West Caspian region. A connection has been traced between the grid pattern on one hand and regional tectonic stresses and neotectonic active locations on another. Thus the analysis of the grid pattern can be used as a technique of searches of local active structures at not enough studied areas.

Some thoughts on the essence of main problems of geomorphol

Analysis of climatic and anthropogenous relief-forming factors (XVth Plenum of Commission on Geomorphology of the USSR Academy of Sciences)

Scientific conference on sea coasts