The  North  Dvina  river delta  passed  through  three  stages in the  Holocene. The  estuarine  stage (~11–7.7 cal. kyr BP) coincided  with the time of penetration of sea waters in the Dvinskoy Bay of the White Sea and ended with the formation  of coastal cliffs cut in the morains of the last glaciation.  The lagoonal stage (~7.7–5.5 cal. kyr BP) was characterized by a slightly higher than the modern, long-lasting White sea level standing, characterized  by slight fluctuations and the accumulation of distinctive organogenic deposits containing  remains of brackish-water  diatoms. The stage of delta filling the residual estuarine gulf (~5.5 cal. kyr BP – present) coincided with a decrease in the rates of glacioisostatic uplift and the beginning of active sediment accumulation in the entire region of the White Sea.

Both direct and indirect relationships exist between the structure of the modern river systems and their hydrological characteristics. These relationships can be used to estimate the hydrological characteristics of ancient channel systems in case of similarity of landscape, climatic, geological and geomorphological conditions of modern and ancient catchments. Erosional relief of the Russian Plain preserves the information about past events of extremely high water runoff. The maximum runoff during the Late Valdai (end of MIS 2) produced large paleochannels in river valleys and networks of small dry valleys (balkas) over the catchment areas. On the slopes of watersheds, widespread and well-preserved are networks of gentle shallow hollows, many of which were formed in the event of high water runoff in the end of the Moscow epoch (MIS 6). Thalweg density (total length per unit area) of the hollow and dry valley networks serves the indicator of the hydrological conditions of their formation (mostly, of the maximum runoff value). Two methods to evaluate these hydrological conditions were used: 1) the statistical regression relations between the density of thalwegs and water flow characteristics in permafrost territories (analogues for the Russian Plain settings in cold epochs of the past); 2) mathematical modelling of erosion relief formation under different hydrological conditions and selecting such runoff parameters that predict the formation of the observed erosional topography. The first method applied to the Khoper river catchment (middle Don river basin; modern runoff depth 110 mm/yr) predicted annual runoff depth of 200–250 mm for the Late Valdai period, and 600–700 mm for the Late Moscow period. The annual runoff depth 230 and 690, respectively, was estimated for the small catchment Perepolye dry valley with the second method. Therefore, during the Late Valdai and Late Moscow epochs, the erosion topography was produced by water runoff, respectively, two-three and six-seven times greater than the present-day runoff in the same catchments.

The paper describes river delta formation in mountain and piedmont reservoirs, characterized by high sediments yield, and gives the examples from the Carpathians, Caucasus and Central Asia. In reservoir backwater zone, sharp drop of flow velocities promotes accumulation of coarse sediment fractions, formation of underwater alluvial fan that eventually evolves to delta. In lowland reservoirs, river deltas cannot form even under conditions of prolonged and deep water draw-offs mainly because of a low sediment yield. High-amplitude intra-annual level fluctuations (up to 5–10 m and more) typical for the majority of reservoirs, fluctuations of backwater zone and changing flow velocity regime determine specific features of sediment transport and deposition. Sediments are deposited in a relatively long distance within reservoirs and can be partially eroded when reservoir level falls. Large lowland rivers flowing into reservoirs are as a rule characterized by a presence of alluvial floodplain-channel complexes represented mainly by initial fluvial topography inundated during reservoir formation (for example, Rivers Ob, Yenisei, Ural). Tributary rivers produce multi-channel deltas in inundated trunk valleys.

Formation of some lake basins in the Southeastern Transbaikalia origins from surface subsidence due to the Pleistocene thermokarstic processes. The mechanism of such development is illustrated by the results of geological studies of a palaeolake basin in the Urtui coal field. Deep (down to 300 m) freezing of the ground affected water-abundant coal beds and led to the formation of ice diapirs (hydro-laccolites) that pierced upwards and burst on the surface as ice hills (pingos) at deep erosion cuts above the frozen coal layers. A set of data (bedding deformations in sections of lacustrine deposits, radiocarbon dates from bone and plant macrofossil material, carpological and palynological analyses, determination of fossil insects and molluscan shells) testify on cyclic formation of the lake basin with the impulses of development during the cold epochs (MIS6, 4 and 2). The palaeolake demonstrated the tendency for gradual shallowing and widening.

The principles of constructing the legend of the morphodynamic map of the shores are outlined. The changes of the sea coasts of European Russia over the past 30–50 years are shown. In classifying the coasts to a particular morphodynamics type, the following was taken into account: their genesis, lithology of coastal cliffs, ice content (for permafrost coasts), information on tidal and surge oscillations of the sea level, data on rates of bank retreat/advance obtained by comparison of time-series of topographic maps and satellite images. The basic principles of forecasting the development of the coasts were suggested: the basin approach – taking into account the specific features of a whole sea basin; regional approach – taking into account the characteristics of the coastal territory; analysis of the current state of the coasts – through their classification; retrospective reconstruction of coast development; scenario approach – geomorphological forecast. An example of such a forecast is given for the coast of the Sambian Peninsula in the southeastern Baltic.

Formation of salt-domes and related landscapes is influence by geodynamic and climatic factors. Three regional models were suggested that present the development stages of salt-dome morphostructures in the mountains of South Iran, the plains of East Texas and the Cisuralian region. It was revealed that the stages of relief formation in salt-dome basins are significantly different in platforms and orogenic belts, primarily due to the fact that the culmination phase of salt extrusion is observed only in mountain areas and is the most evident in the combination with extra-arid conditions (South Iran). Semi-converted morphostructures are characteristic of the regions with humid and semiarid climate, where individual stages of salt-dome morphogenesis are suppressed by the activity of Earth surface processes. To recognize the stages of salt-dome development and to assess the climatic effects on their formation, caprocks (“rock hats”) are of primary importance. Caprock thickness and degree of degradation indicate the total duration of surface erosion of the salt core. It was found that thick caprocks of giant domes in the Caspian lowland were formed under conditions of prolonged erosion and changing humidity. Karstic troughs are characteristic for the roofs of salt structures in the Cis-Urals and East Texas. Rock hats of salt diapirs in humid regions are most severely destroyed.

Results of long-term monitoring of gully head retreat rates (GHRR) during almost the entire recent phase of global warming (1978–2014) in different parts of the Udmurt Republic are analysed. Assessment of the influence of different climatic parameters on GHRR in different parts of Udmurtiya and the whole territory in the two time intervals (1978–1997 and 1998–2014) is the main content of article. It was determined that GHRR decreased from 1.3 m yr -1 in 1978–1997 to 0.3 m yr -1 in 1998–2014. Based on the observation data that have been collecting nearby Izhevsk twice a year (after snow-melting and in autumn after period of rain-storms events), some changes were found in the relative contribution of snow-melting and rainfall events to GHRR. Some 80% of gully head retreat was occurring during the snow-melt season in the period 1978–1997, and only 53% – after 1997. Increasing influence of the rain-fed runoff manifested more clearly in the eastern and northern parts of the Vyatka-Kamsa interfluve, while in the West, higher correlation was found between GHRR and frozen soil depth in winter. The most significant increase of gully length occurs during the warm part of the year and is related to rains that produce daily precipitation layer of >40 mm.

Channels with regularly spaced elliptical pools connected by narrow runs, called beaded streams, are widespread in permafrost regions and are considered a result of ice-wedge polygons degradation. Other hypothesis said that such forms are caused by freezing up of alluvial depositional forms in the channel. However no detailed study of the origin of beaded channels in permafrost regions was conducted yet. In this study we combined existing hypotheses of the origin of beaded channels in the permafrost regions with data of their morphology, distribution and permafrost conditions beneath the riverbeds. It was revealed that beaded channels in permafrost regions are not a sign of permafrost and ice-wedge network degradation, because ice-wedge polygons in the floodplain are secondary. They are polygenetic landforms formed by thermokarst, selective thermoerosion due to uneven freezing and thawing of sediments in the pools and runs and also fluvial and ice processes. The role of each of these factors depends on the local conditions of channel formation. A special type of small river channels – beaded meandering channels – was identified, which are remnants of unconfined meandering process and sign of decrease of the fluvial process activity. Transformation from meandering to beaded channel could be caused by reduce of water runoff and permafrost aggradation in the floodplain. Detailed analysis of causes and age of this transformation can be used for paleoclimatic and paleohydrological reconstructions in permafrost regions.

V.V. Dokuchaev developed five main issues of geomorphology that relate to a quantitative study of modern geomorphological processes: 1) the problem of landscape latitudinal and altitudinal zonality in the glacial and postglacial periods; 2) ideas about the formation of river valleys and 3) the development of gullies and balkas (small dry valleys), 4) regional geomorphology and geomorphologic mapping, and 5) the age of the relief, the staging and cyclicity of relief formation. According to V.V. Dokuchaev, geomorphology – a component of one of the most interesting disciplines in the field of modern Earth sciences – the doctrine of “… complex and diverse relationships and interactions, as well as laws governing their long term changes that exist between … living and dead nature, between: a) surface rocks, b) shape of the earth, c) soils, d) surface and ground waters, e) the climate of the country, e) plant and animal organisms (including, and even mainly, the lowest) and man – “the majestic final creation””. V.V. Dokuchaev anticipated the main idea of V.M. Davis on the successive change of erosion cycles and stages in the evolution of landforms, formulated a connection in the development of valleys, balkas, gullies and rivers. He managed to show that the similarity of these landforms is especially great in spring, that, possibly, some rivers could and even should have emerged in the same way as gullies currently form. In his opinion, on the western slope of the Ergeni (the upland in the south of the Russian Plain), where the balka valleys are not as numerous as on the eastern slope, they are not parallel to each other, but, on the contrary, they are joining together and striving to form large rivers that are going to River Don and partly to the western Manych. Very interesting and important is the statement of V.V. Dokuchaev that some ravines under favorable conditions can and should cross water-divides and eventually evolve into real rivers.